Buhen Fortress: An African Military Stronghold in Ancient Sudan

Buhen, also referred to as Βοὥν (Bohón) in Ancient Greek, is an ancient Egyptian settlement located on the western bank of the Nile, just south of the Second Cataract in what is now Northern State, Sudan. This historical site dates back to the Old Kingdom period, around 2686 to 2181 BCE, serving as an essential colonial town for the Egyptians. Buhen is particularly renowned for its contributions to copper smelting.

In 1962, archaeologists uncovered a fascinating copper manufacturing facility at Buhen, enclosed by an impressive stone barrier. This facility traces its origins back to the rule of Sneferu, a pharaoh from the 4th Dynasty. Numerous inscriptions and graffiti discovered at the site reveal a continuous Egyptian presence that lasted for approximately two centuries, before migration from the southern regions disrupted their settlement during the 5th Dynasty.

History of Buhen

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The name Buhen in hieroglyphics is represented as b(w)hn. In the context of the Middle Kingdom, Buhen served a significant role. During the Old Kingdom, it was not just a military outpost but also a thriving center for copper production. The discovery of an ancient copper factory surrounded by a massive stone wall shed light on this remarkable period. Some evidence suggests the area may have seen earlier occupation during the 2nd Dynasty.

The Egyptian presence at Buhen lasted for about 200 years until late in the 5th Dynasty, when they were likely displaced by southern migrations. The establishment of a fortress during the Middle Kingdom marked a shift in this settlement’s function. The natural landscape around Buhen facilitated the fortress’s construction, with a sturdy rock wall serving as a solid base.

Buhen’s significance continued into the Second Intermediate Period, where artifacts like the Funerary Stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb were discovered. This stele provided insights into the Egyptians’ annexation of Nubia, revealing their dependence on Nubian kings for achieving control over the region.

The Buhen Horse

One of the most intriguing discoveries at Buhen is the skeletal remains of a horse, which holds considerable archaeological importance. Discovered during excavations in 1959 and 1960 by Professor Emery, the skeleton is currently housed at the Khartoum Museum, on loan to University College London. This horse met its unfortunate end during the initial sacking of the fortress around 1675 BCE when it fell onto a brick pavement.

Initially, identifying the species of the remains posed a challenge, as true horses were not indigenous to Ancient Egypt. However, comparisons with Grevy’s zebra indicated that its skeletal structure aligned more closely with horses introduced in various regions during the era.

Fortress at Buhen

Buhen is particularly notable for its grand fortress, likely constructed during the reign of Senusret III around 1860 BCE. This fortress was part of a series of outposts built to mark the border of Egypt as it expanded into Nubia. Buhen served as the northernmost fort, with other neighboring outposts such as Mirgissa and Uronarti.

The fortress extended more than 150 meters along the Nile, covering a sprawling area of 13,000 square meters. It housed an estimated population of around 3,500 individuals and included an intricate system of defenses, featuring a moat, drawbridges, bastions, and ramparts. The fortress walls, rough stone constructions, were notably thicker than most ancient Egyptian fortifications, which were typically built with timber and mud-brick.

Today, much of Buhen lies submerged beneath Lake Nasser due to the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1964. Before the deluge, extensive excavations led by Walter Bryan Emery uncovered the site’s rich history.

Headquarters

At the heart of Buhen was the central administrative hub, sprawling over 1,000 square meters. This significant structure was strategically located in the northern corner of the settlement. One could enter through a singular western doorway, which led to a series of anterooms and halls supported by a remarkable number of pillars. Notably, remnants of decorative paintings and weaponry found within suggest the building’s continued use during the New Kingdom.

Copper Production

Exploration of Bohun’s copper production activities sheds light on ancient metallurgical practices. Emery’s findings pointed to a well-established copper factory, which became a focal point for Egyptologists studying metalworking. Samples from the site revealed a variety of items such as slag, crucible fragments, and even small copper tools.

The analysis of ore samples indicated a rich composition of materials, including malachite and traces of atacamite. This suggests that Buhen was well-suited for copper production, benefiting from essential resources like labor, water from the Nile, and clay for smelting.

However, the specifics of the ore sources remain a mystery, with recorded copper deposits located far from Buhen, necessitating long-distance transport across the Nile. Numerous andirons were discovered as well, traditionally linked with Egyptian cooking, yet their presence indicated a possible connection to copper smelting processes.

Through the unfolding layers of Buhen’s history, we gain insight not only into its strategic military implications but also into the advanced metallurgical practices of ancient Egypt. As researchers continue to study this fascinating site, Buhen remains a significant testament to the ingenuity and resilience of its ancient inhabitants.