The Kingdom of Mapungubwe: Southern Africa’s First Gold and Trade Empire

The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced /mɑːˈpuːnɡuːbweɪ/ mah-POON-goob-weh) was an ancient state situated at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers in South Africa, just south of Great Zimbabwe. By 1250, the capital’s population had reached approximately 5,000, and the kingdom likely spanned an area of about 30,000 km² (12,000 square miles).

Institutionalization of Rainmaking and Trade

The elite of Mapungubwe institutionalized rainmaking as a central aspect of their sacral kingship, facilitating the kingdom’s involvement in the Indian Ocean trade by exporting gold and ivory through Swahili city-states along the East African coast. Although it is commonly regarded as the first kingdom in Southern Africa, archaeological discoveries at nearby Mapela Hill suggest evidence of sacral kingship dating back nearly 200 years prior.

Around 1300, disruptions in trade routes led to the scattering of Mapungubwe’s population. Today, descendants of this kingdom are often linked with the Kalanga (Shona), Tshivhula, and Venda peoples.

Despite local awareness of the sacred site, Mapungubwe was rediscovered by the scientific community and colonial authorities in 1933. The Mapungubwe Collection, comprising various artefacts excavated from this archaeological site, is currently housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria, within the Mapungubwe National Park located along the border with Zimbabwe and Botswana.

Etymology

The original name of Mapungubwe remains unknown; however, it was designated this name based on archaeological naming conventions. The term “Mapungubwe” translates to “a place of (many) jackals,” with “-pungubwe” referring to jackals in various Bantu languages. In Venda, the word for jackal is “phunguwe,” while in Northern Sotho, it is referred to as “phukubje.”

Historical Context

Origins

The region has been inhabited by the San people for approximately 100,000 years, leaving a legacy in the form of cave paintings across Southern Africa. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe’s origins trace back to Leopard’s Kopje.

Schroda (900-1000)

Motivated by the lucrative ivory trade, groups known as the Zhizo migrated southward around 900 to establish a settlement at Schroda, near the Limpopo River, resulting in the displacement of the San from their ancestral lands. The Zhizo engaged in cattle herding and farming, establishing trade relationships and possibly hunting alongside the San, who occupied surrounding settlements. Schroda likely served as the capital due to its significant population, estimated at around 500. The chief, who possessed considerable wealth, accumulated cattle through various means, including fines, tributes, and marriage alliances.

K2 (1000-1220)

Around 1000, some Leopard’s Kopje people relocated south to establish Bambandyanalo (known as K2), as the Zhizo migrated westward to Toutswe in modern-day Botswana. While some scholars argue that relations were characterized by conflict, others suggest that social and political dynamics may have been more complex. The population at K2, which likely had 1,500 residents by 1200, engaged in agriculture, cultivating various crops, and participated in widespread rainmaking practices.

Mapungubwe Hill (1220-1300)

Around 1220, amidst a severe drought, royal elites relocated the capital to Mapungubwe Hill, establishing habitation on its flat-topped summit. The hill became the sole focus for rainmaking rituals, signifying the connection between the leader and the rainmaking practices. By 1250, the population surrounding Mapungubwe Hill had grown to around 5,000.

The economic foundation of Mapungubwe relied on agriculture. Cattle herding practices evolved, allowing for social and political ties to strengthen as wealth accumulated through tributes. While it remains unclear how much coercion played a role in the kingdom’s growth, archaeological evidence of stone walls points to a symbolic separation between elites and commoners, potentially indicating warfare.

Cultural and Societal Structure

As the society transitioned from social ranking to a class-based system during its time at K2, it represented one of the earliest examples of such structure in Southern Africa. The king and elite classes resided on the hilltop, while the general populace occupied the surrounding areas.

The kingdom was marked by a hierarchical structure, possibly consisting of five tiers: family heads, headmen, petty chiefs, senior chiefs, and the king. Social roles were strictly defined, with men participating in political and dispute resolution activities, while women often managed domestic tasks.

Rainmaking Practices

Rainmaking, based on the belief that humans could influence weather through rituals, played a crucial role in Mapungubwe’s spiritual life. The San, perceived to have a closer connection to the spirits of the land, were often sought for their expertise in rainmaking. Over time, the practice became institutionalized, with the elite family in Mapungubwe taking on the role of ritual specialists.

Economic Activities

Mapungubwe engaged in local trade with neighboring settlements, as well as significant participation in the Indian Ocean trade. The kingdom exported gold and ivory, gaining wealth through interactions with foreign traders, including Arab merchants. However, by the end of the 13th century, shifting trade routes and the emergence of new hubs contributed to the kingdom’s decline.

Architectural Significance

The use of stone in architecture, referred to as dzimbahwe in Shona, marked a significant aspect of Mapungubwe’s spatial organization. Stone walls defined important areas within the capital, reinforcing social hierarchies and providing spaces for the king’s ritual seclusion.

Royal Burials

The discovery of a cemetery in the 1930s revealed significant wealth associated with elite burials, including gold objects and intricately designed items placed with the deceased. Notable among these were skeletons accompanied by gold and glass bead adornments, suggesting the extent of wealth and the status of the buried individuals.

Population, Diet, and Lifestyle

Skeletal analyses of the Mapungubwe population indicate health patterns typical of pre-industrial societies, along with evidence of a varied diet and lifestyle conducive to agriculture. The presence of agricultural practices and pottery suggests a community well-adapted to their environment.

Ethnic and Genetic Affiliation

The inhabitants of Mapungubwe are believed to have ancestral ties with the Kalanga people, a subgroup of the Shona. Despite claims from various groups, historical records complicate direct lineage associations. Genetic analyses have revealed ties between the individuals from Mapungubwe and broader Southern African populations.

Rediscovery and Historical Significance

Mapungubwe’s historical context is marked by local reverence for the site, coupled with rediscovery by colonial explorers in the early 20th century. Documentation of the findings was often undertaken without local consultation, perpetuating historical narratives that excluded the voices of the descendants and local communities involved.

In summary, the Kingdom of Mapungubwe provides critical insights into the early development of social structures, trade networks, and cultural practices in Southern Africa, highlighting a rich and complex history that continues to influence contemporary understandings of the region’s past.