The History of the Adal Sultanate in the Horn of Africa

The Adal Sultanate, also known as the Adal Empire or Bar Saʿad dīn, was a significant medieval Sunni Muslim Empire located in the Horn of Africa. Founded by Sabr ad-Din III on the Harar plateau in Adal after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat, it flourished from around 1415 to 1577. At its zenith, the polity under Sultan Badlay controlled a vast territory stretching from Cape Guardafui in Somalia to the port city of Suakin in Sudan. The Adal Empire maintained a robust commercial and political relationship with the Ottoman Empire and was alternatively known as the federation of Zeila.

The region of Adal, also known as Awdal, Adl, or Adel, was situated east of the province of Ifat and was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims. It included the territory between the Awash River towards Lake Abbe, as well as the area stretching from Zeila to Harar, according to historical accounts.

The Adal Sultanate’s history was marked by conflicts and shifting powers. In 1288, the region of Adal was conquered by the Ifat Sultanate. Despite being incorporated into Ifat, Adal managed to maintain a degree of independence under Walashma rule, alongside other provinces. However, Adal was invaded by the Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I in 1332, resulting in significant conflict and ravaging of the province.

In the late 14th century, Haqq ad-Din II transferred Ifat’s capital to the Harar plateau, leading to the perception of him as the true founder of the Adal Sultanate. The complex interactions between Adal and the Christian Abyssinian kingdom led to wars and shifting alliances, with periods of both Adalite victories and defeats.

One of the key figures in the history of the Adal Sultanate was Sabr ad-Din III, the eldest son of Sa’ad ad-Din II, who returned to Adal from exile in Arabia to restore his father’s throne in 1415. He proclaimed himself the king of Adal and established his new capital at Dakkar, leading to significant military campaigns against the Christians. This marked the beginning of a period of Adalite resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom.

The Adal Sultanate’s military successes and challenges continued in the following years, with notable figures like Sultan Badlay ibn Sa’ad ad-Din and Sultan Muhammad ibn Badlay playing significant roles in the empire’s campaigns and interactions with the Ethiopian Empire.

After the defeat and death of Badlay ibn Sa’ad ad-Din at the Battle of Gomit, Muhammad ibn Badlay submitted to the Ethiopian Empire, leading to internal struggles within the Adal Sultanate. This period saw a succession of sultans and significant tensions, culminating in the rise of Garad Abun Adashe and later Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad.

However, the internal weaknesses of the Adal Sultanate were exposed, leading to struggles for power and succession. The assassination of Sultan Muhammad in 1518 and subsequent power struggles within Adal created a chaotic environment, eventually leading to the rise of a powerful leader called Garad Abun Adashe. However, his reign was cut short by Sultan Abu Bakr, who transferred the capital from Dakkar to Harar.

These complex internal dynamics set the stage for the emergence of a young rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, who would eventually rise to power and undertake the conquest of Abyssinia. His fervor for the jihad and the restoration of order in the Somali territory through various campaigns laid the foundation for the formidable army that would undertake the conquest of Abyssinia.

The Adal Sultanate’s history is a rich tapestry of power struggles, military campaigns, and cultural interactions, shaping the medieval landscape of the Horn of Africa. The empire’s legacy continues to resonate in the region’s historical and cultural narratives, reflecting the complex dynamics of power, religion, and ethnicity in the medieval era.